[27] The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. Bariba Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. p-Talodi Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed, Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of. p-Ijaw See . Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. [2] With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are exclusively native to the African continent. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. [130], The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches - but not all languages - of the Afroasiatic family. (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. p-Central Khoisan Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. Meredith Holt ; PS, Eg., Ch. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. p-Ogoni Voegelin, C.F. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. Once the Luwian hieroglyphics for God "" and Gate "" were discovered at Gbekli Tepe, this author was able to directly link the site's carved pillars and pillar enclosures to the Abrahamic/Mosaic "Word of God", . all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources p-Katloid Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. Semitic speakers moved into the Fertile Crescent and "emerg[ed] into history" by bringing Akkadian (a Semitic language) into what is now Iraq, a previously Sumerian-speaking area (Dalby ,p6). [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). ), to become thoroughly wet, pour heavily (intr. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Oko Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. Under East Semitic rose Akkadian and Babylonian. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. The most up to . *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). [129] Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. Rashad Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. [135] In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). [26] Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000-1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. suff. [113] These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. Upload your video About the author [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. (abbrev. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". p-Guang innovation: stem + *n n. suff. US$62.00 (softcover). [166], The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. Dictionary of Languages. [133][150] It forms agent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns. ), (root *-sa-, seen also in #539 preceding, + *w inchoative), (2nd root shape *-caab- seen in PEC v. and Banna (SOm) 'white,' is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for), indefinite pronoun stem (one, someone, somebody), (stem + * iter. p-Grassfields [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. S. SC Sem. About us. [175] In Egyptian, it takes the forms -j, whereas in Semitic it takes the form -i(y);[138] it thus has the same form in both language families. Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses. *t: . [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Report Save. ; possible n. derivation < v. in #1004). ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. p-Ukaan p-Chadic in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. p-Mumuye innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. [187] Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1-10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6-9 from the numbers 1-5 in some way. rather than the subject and object. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. suff. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. p-North Bauchi It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. [99] [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. The main quality of Afro-Asiatic is that it "cuts across usually perceived racial boundaries" (Dalby, p.6). innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. . The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. into stem), to take (bit of food or drink) into the mouth, (* is required by derived noun, root #641 following), (Eg., Sem. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. suff. The prefixes ti and it mean she. These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74). p-Potou-Akanic [23] In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;[24] since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. Kim WCh WOT [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. [6] of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. Temein as EL). There is also some evidence from. ; SC semantics: early beads were made of shell), (root of #48 + *c extend. [121] Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants.[125]. [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. suff. [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". p-Fali [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. p-Khoe p-Edoid The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. suff. Defaka North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. p-Koman New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. p-Masa The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. Afroasiatic(Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasianand in older sources as Hamito-Semitic(Chamito-Semitic)[3]or Semito-Hamitic,[4]is a large language familyof about 300 languages. [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." South Bauchi [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found Kanuri In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. Map of Afro-Asiatic languages distribution (click to enlarge it) p-Kuliak (Ik) [144], A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state." p-Benue-Congo [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo innovation: semantic narrowing to hitting with the hand), (probable *tliiz-, adj. Atlantic (Guinea) p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) [191], The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the [190] Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. Dogon Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. Sandawe Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. p-Ron suff. shared innovation: n. for 'clay'), great (especially in size but also in number), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. [121] In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. Dalby, Andrew. The following list of Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions is from Ehret (1995). However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. Gule Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. There is an obvious trend (probably driven by Semitic and Egyptian researchers) to place the Afroasiatic Homeland near one of the many proposed Semitic homelands, i.e. * "Revising the Consonant Inventory of Proto-Eastern Cushitic," Studies in African Linguistics 22, 3 (1991): 211-275. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. [128] Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,[80] but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. Yendang Sumerian- tamil links ( included links with turkish ( said to be closed to sumerian by panturkists which also said dravidian and turkish cognated when we know dravidians were first people of asia coming from black african L3haplogroup), yeniseian ( intermediate between turkish and chinese and member of sino caucasian family that links chinese to north caucesian langages who according to .
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